Affluent Savvy
Affluent Savvy
Photo: Skylar Kang
The results revealed that color was often listed as a perceptual feature, and it was usually listed as the first or second feature in the list. The color red was most associated with anger, green with disgust, black with fear, yellow with happiness, blue with sadness, and bright with surprise.
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Learn More »The results of the present study indicate that negative and positive words are associated with different colors. All of the negative words (emotion and emotion-laden) elicited the response RED most often. This is consistent with previous research suggesting that red carries a negative meaning (Kuhbandner & Pekrun, 2013) and is often associated with failure (Moller et al., 2009). The association between the color red and negative words and events is most likely the result of several sources. In the English language, we often use such phrases as “seeing red” (referring to feeling angry). The color red may also be associated with failure through classical conditioning, because teachers use red ink to correct mistakes (Elliot & Maier, 2007). Elliot, Maier, Moller, Friedman, and Meinhardt (2007) found that exposure to the color red impaired participants’ performance on various achievement tests, such as anagram completion and the numerical and language-based subtests of an intelligence test. The color BLACK was also a fairly common response to the negative words in the present study. This is consistent with research examining brightness and stimulus valence (Meier et al., 2004). Darkness is often associated with negative events, and brightness with positive events. In fact, the color black was very rarely associated with the positive emotion or positive emotion-laden words in the present study, and it was never the most common response given. The most common color response for the positive emotion words was yellow, and the most common response for the positive emotion-laden words was white. The main goal of the present work was to provide researchers with a set of color norms to aid in stimulus construction and selection. The emotional Stroop paradigm is widely used to measure selective attention to emotional information. It is believed that the interference in this task is a result of the emotional content of the words presented (McKenna, 1986; McKenna & Sharma, 1995). The present set of norms could be used to extend the work by Sutton and Altarriba (2008), in which they examined a “true Stroop effect” for emotion words. The norms can also be used with other paradigms, such as the affective Simon task or the RSVP paradigm. The present work also has implications for the use of colors in experimental research. Often researchers use color to differentiate a target stimulus from other stimuli. For example, Keil and Ihssen (2004) examined the attentional blink effect for emotion words. Using the RSVP paradigm, they presented a series of neutral (e.g., to continue), positive (e.g., to admire), and negative (e.g., to destroy) verbs on the screen. The target verbs were presented in green, and the distractor verbs were presented in white. If different colors are associated with emotional stimuli, then color might actually act as a confounding variable if it is inherently associated with a specific emotion word or class of words. It is important to note that the set of color norms provided was collected predominately from native English speakers. The associations between colors and words vary across cultures. For example, Hupka, Zaleski, Otto, Reidl, and Tarabrina (1997) examined the relationships between color and the following emotion words: (1) anger, (2) envy, (3) fear, and (4) jealousy. Participants from Germany, Mexico, Poland, Russia, and the United States were asked to indicate the extent to which one of these emotions reminded them of the colors black, blue, brown, gray, green, orange, pink, purple, red, violet, white, and yellow. The colors black and red were associated with anger in all countries. In addition, black and red were also associated with fear, except in Mexico. The word envy was associated with different colors in the various countries. For example, it was associated with green in the United States, yellow in Germany, and purple in Poland. The color association norms presented here should only be used with native English speakers in the United States.
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Learn More »In the present study, participants were asked to provide the first color that came to mind for each of the words presented. The variety of color responses was quite large across participants; however, it is important to note that research conducted by Van Overschelde, Rawson, and Dunlosky (2004) suggests that some color terms are more likely to be given than others. In their research, participants were given various category labels (e.g., colors, fruits, and weapons), and asked to generate as many responses as they could within 30 s. For the “color” category, the colors blue and red were given most often as the first responses. The colors green, purple, yellow, and black were also given as first responses, but not as often. Other color words, including pink, brown, gold, and teal, were never given as first responses. It is possible that when one is asked to name a color for an object, such prototypical colors as red and blue are the first that come to mind, and reporting other colors takes more effort. In the present study, RED was the most common response for the negative words, but it was not the most common response for all of the word types. In fact, for the positive words, the most common response was YELLOW, and for the positive emotion-laden words, the most common response was WHITE. Research from the object identification and recognition literature has shown that color perception and color knowledge are distinct cognitive processes that can be distinguished from one another at the neuroanatomical level (e.g., Bartels & Zeki, 2000; Bramão et al., 2012). The perception of surface color is a result of a bottom-up process generated by the color present in the object, whereas color knowledge is a component of the semantic information that individuals have stored about the object. In the present study, we asked participants to provide a color label for each emotional word. This represents the color knowledge that individuals had stored for emotional words, and not the perception of color. Research in this field has also indicated that color diagnosticity, the degree to which a color is representative of an object or is associated with an object, may influence how quickly an individual can correctly recognize an object in the environment (Tanaka & Presnell, 1999). For example, a banana is an object that is high in color diagnosticity (i.e., associated with the color yellow), but a car is low in diagnosticity (there are many different colors for cars). It is possible that some of the words in the present study may have been higher in color diagnosticity than others, particularly the concrete nouns in the emotion-laden lists. To determine whether the associations between the words and colors provided in the present study were the result of color diagnosticity, we examined the associative strength values provided in the University of South Florida (USF) free association norms database (Nelson, McEvoy, & Schreiber, 1998). If a color is naturally symptomatic of a particular object, one would expect many individuals to provide this color response when presented with the object. Of our 55 negative emotion-laden words, 48 were available in the USF database. Of these 48 words, only seven were associated with any particular color. Also, the average association strength between the colors and words was low—.133, ranging from .014 to .338. The word slave had the highest association strength, with the color black, which was the first of 18 possible responses given by participants. Likewise, 33 of the 41 positive emotion-laden words were available in the USF database. Of these 33 words, only eight were associated with a color word. Once again, the average association strength was low—.055, ranging from .014 to .183. A color response was never the first response given for any of the positive emotion-laden words. It seems unlikely that the degree of color diagnosticity was largely responsible for the colors reported for the majority of the items in the present study.
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